High-performance photon-driven DC motor system | Nature Communications

Nature Communications volume 15, Article number: 9506 (2024) Cite this article

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Direct current (DC) motors are crucial in drones, robotics, and electrical devices. Conventionally, the DC motor is driven by a switching electricity converter, which utilizes electrical energy to drive mechanical motion. However, the rapid on-off switching actions in the switching electricity converter would cause electromagnetic interference (EMI), impairing the functionality of drive systems. Here, we propose a photon-driven DC motor system based on photonic converter, which utilizes optical energy to drive mechanical motion, and therefore avoids EMI derived from electrical switching and immunizes against EMI during electrical energy transmission in conventional switching electricity-driven DC motor system. The operation principle and power modulation-based speed control are also presented for the proposed photon-driven DC motor system. The experiments demonstrate that the motor accurately follows the speed reference and withstands load disturbances. This innovation opens new potential for DC motor applications by improving electromagnetic compatibility.

Direct current (DC) motor plays a critical role in drones, robotics, and electrical devices1,2,3. The brushed DC motor, which is the most widely used DC motor, employs brushes to conduct DC electricity to the rotating part of the motor (the armature). This process continuously changes the flow of electricity that generates mechanical motion. The brushed DC motor is an attractive option in various applications because of its simple design, wide availability, easy control, and good reliability.

A conventional brushed DC motor drive system is illustrated in Fig. 1a, which is known as a switching electricity converter-driven DC motor system. The switching electricity converter is employed to convert the DC electricity power to drive the DC motor, where a controller is adopted for the switching electricity converter to regulate the DC motor’s speed based on its received feedback signals from motor sensors via electricity wires. In Fig. 1a, the excepted output voltage Vout of the switching electricity converter is modulated by the switching electricity converter through periodical on-off switching actions of the power semiconductor switches. However, the rapid on-off switching actions generate high-frequency electromagnetic waves4,5,6,7,8,9, and causes intrinsic electromagnetic interference (EMI), which would adversely affect nearby electronic devices by inducing unwanted currents and voltages. Besides, the rapid on-off switching actions in the switching electricity converter also inherently cause ripple of its output voltage Vout10, which would lead to torque ripple of the motor, and thereby increasing the difficulty of motor control11. On the other hand, the environmental EMI12,13,14,15,16, common in industrial environments, would introduce noise into feedback and control signals of the switching electricity converter, which would also increase difficulty of motor control. To protect against EMI and ensure high-performance motor control, effective EMI impact elimination is crucial.

a Schematic of a conventional switching electricity-driven DC motor system, equipped with a switching electricity converter (boost converter), exhibits its steady-state output voltage over time under the linear-ripple approximation. EMI electromagnetic interference, DC direct current. Vout the output voltage of the switching electricity converter. ΔV output voltage ripple magnitude. b Schematic of a photon-driven DC motor system, showing its steady-state output voltage over time, characterized by an approximately ripple-free condition. HPLD high-power laser diode, PPC photovoltaic power converter.

Light, as an alternative energy carrier, presents an innovative approach to overcome EMI challenges. The power over fiber (PoF)17,18,19,20,21,22,23 employs fibers to transmit optical energy, which can overcome EMI issues inherent in electrical energy transmission. In the PoF, continuous monochromatic light from a laser is transmitted via optical fibers, and converted into electricity by photovoltaic devices. Compared to traditional electrical energy transmission by metal wire, the PoF offers immunity to EMI due to the non-conductive nature of optical fibers19,20,21. This makes them ideal for use in environments with high levels of EMI. Furthermore, PoF ensures galvanic isolation, weight reduction, and eliminates the risk of fire or electrical shock in metal wires19,20,21. To eliminate the impact of EMI on conventional DC motor drive system, PoF is an attractive solution.

In this work, a photon-driven DC motor system is proposed, which integrates PoF and DC motor control, and employs optical energy to regulate DC motor’s speed, as shown in Fig. 1b. In the proposed system, a photonic converter is utilized to regulate the DC motor’s speed, which is controlled by the laser driver. Here, the optical power of the high-power laser diode (HPLD) is controlled by the laser driver to regulate the DC motor’s speed by the controller based on its receiving feedback signals from the motor sensors via optical fiber communication. In the photonic converter, the HPLD is used to convert electrical energy into optical energy, which is transmitted through optical fiber and fiber coupler. And then, the photovoltaic power converters24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31 (PPCs) are used to convert optical energy back into electrical energy for the motor. Owing to the optical power is continuously controlled in the photonic converter, the photon-driven motor system can significantly eliminate intrinsic EMI and voltage ripple in the conventional switching electricity-driven motor system. Owing to adoption of photonic converter and fibers, the photon-driven motor system is immune to the environment EMI. In this work, the HPLD-PPC-Motor model for the proposed photon-driven DC motor system is analyzed, proposing an operation principle and a power modulation (PM)-based speed control, due to the incompatibility between conventional switching electricity converter-based control and the photon-driven DC motor system.

An experimental prototype with off-the-shelf discrete components is constructed and three situations are conducted: (1) braking and starting under constant load, (2) tracking a sinusoidal speed reference with constant load, and (3) tracking constant speed with load disturbance. Experiment results show that the proposed system can effectively track the speed reference and can resist load disturbance. Besides, the measurement results demonstrate that the intensity of electromagnetic field emission from the photonic converter is at an environmental level and lower than that of the switching electricity converter across a broad frequency range. Furthermore, the measurement results demonstrate that the photonic converter has the rejection of output voltage ripple.

The photon-driven DC motor system presents a revolutionary approach in high-level environmental EMI applications, such as a mobile tethered unmanned aerial vehicle (tUAV) for monitoring high voltage transmission lines and an auxiliary motor drive system of electromagnetic catapult system. For example, the conventional tUAV connects to a mobile ground station (GS) via a metal wire tether, which supplies power to the tUAV, as shown in Fig. 2a, where the metal wires are susceptible to EMI, impairing the functionality of the supply power. Besides, the weight of the metal wire limits tethering distances to ~150 m32,33,34. To address EMI challenge and extend the tethering distance in conventional tUAV, the photon-driven DC motor system can be employed in the tUAV, where the HPLD in the GS is connected to the PPCs in the tUAV through the fiber, as shown in Fig. 2b, c. Since fiber is immune to environmental EMI and lighter than wire, it enables the potential for EMI resistance and longer tethering distances, overcoming previous limitations and opening new possibilities for tUAV applications.

a Schematic of a mobile tUAV for monitoring high voltage transmission lines. tUAV tethered unmanned aerial vehicle. b The photon-driven DC motor system is applied to the propeller motors of the tUAV. c Partial schematic diagram of photon-driven DC motor system in the tUAV.

The proposed photon-driven DC motor system is shown in Fig. 1b. The DC motor speed is regulated by the photonic converter, which is controlled by the controller via a HPLD driver. The optical fiber communication is used to transmit the feedback signals from sensors, such as motor speed, to the controller. In the proposed photon-driven DC motor system, the photonic converter is mainly comprised of HPLD, fiber, and PPC. The HPLD is utilized to continuously supply optical power to the PPC via a fiber. The PPC is utilized to convert the optical power into suitable electrical power for driving DC motor. Supplementary Fig. 1 provides a comparison of the energy conversion process between the proposed system and the conventional system.

A HPLD-PPC-Motor model based on the theoretical equivalent circuit model, as shown in Fig. 3a and b, is proposed to derive the theoretical performance of the proposed system. This model involves the photoelectric characteristics of the HPLD and PPC, as well as the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the DC motor. The HPLD model is the electro-optic equivalent circuit35,36, and the HPLD requires to operate in its linear interval (the gray area in Supplementary Fig. 2). In this linear interval, the injection current of the HPLD IHPLD is linear to the output optical power Plight_HPLD of the HPLD, i.e., Plight_HPLD ∝ IHPLD. Thus, the Plight_HPLD can be modulated by the IHPLD (see section “Method” for the details).

a The equivalent circuit of the HPLD-PPC-Motor model. The output current (Ippc) and output voltage (Vppc) of the PPC are equal to the armature current (Ia) and the terminal voltage (Vppc) of the brushed DC motor, respectively. Iph denotes photogenerated current of the PPC, D1 denotes p–n junction diode, Rsh denotes shunt resistance, Rs denotes series resistance, C denotes shunt capacitance, Ic denotes capacitance current, Ra denotes armature winding resistance, La denotes armature winding inductance, e denotes back electromotive force (EMF), Te and TL denote the electromagnetic torque and load torque, respectively. ωrm is the rotating angular speed of the rotor, J is the inertia coefficient, and B is the viscous damping coefficient. MPP, maximum power point. b The relationship between different models within the HPLD-PPC motor model. c Current–voltage (Ippc–Vppc) curves for the PPC at the input optical power of 1.5, 3, 4.5, and 6 W with current–voltage (Ia–Vppc) curves for the brushed DC motor at load torque of 20, 30, and 40 mNm. OMP operational matching point. d Power–voltage (Pppc–Vppc) curves for the PPC at the optical power of 1.5, 3, 4.5, and 6 W with power–voltage (Pa–Vppc) curves for the brushed DC motor at the load torque of 20, 30, and 40 mNm. e Photocurrent–input optical power (Iph–Plight_PPC) curve for the PPC. f Photocurrent–injection current (Iph–IHPLD) curves for the photonic converter under fiber transmission distance from 10 m to 10 km. The used parameters are listed in Supplementary Table 1 and Supplementary Table 2.

The fiber model shows the output optical power Plight_HPLD of the HPLD is linear to the input optical power Plight_PPC of the PPC, i.e., Plight_PPC ∝ Plight_HPLD in the optical energy transmission from HPLD to PPC via the fiber. The model of the fiber is based on the Bouguer-Beer-Lambert law37,38, which shows that the power of light in optical energy transmission by the fiber is exponential attenuation over distance. This attenuation, caused primarily by absorption and scattering in the fiber, is quantified as attenuation coefficient α in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). The α depends on two factors, including the distance of light propagation and the light’s wavelength. For a wavelength of 808 nm, the α is around 2.0 dB/km. For the wavelength of 975 nm, the α is around 0.8 dB/km39. The α for SiO2 fiber is shown in Supplementary Fig. 3 under different wavelengths and distances from 0 m to 1 km. For a specific fiber, the distance of light propagation and wavelength are constant, that is, the α for this fiber is also constant. Therefore, Plight_PPC ∝ Plight_HPLD (see section “Method” for the details). Moreover, HPLD and PPC efficiencies vary by wavelength: 808 nm HPLDs have an over 45% efficiency25,40, while 975 nm reach over 50%41. PPCs operate at over 55% efficiency42 for 800–850 nm and over 24%20,43 for 900–980 nm. This study selects the 808 nm wavelength for high PPC efficiency.

The PPC model is the single diode equivalent circuit44,45(see section “Method” for details), which consists of a series resistor, a parallel resistor, a diode, and a current source, as shown in Fig. 3a. The PPC receives input optical power Plight_PPC, and generates photogenerated current Iph of the PPC, which determines the output current Ippc of the PPC and the output voltage Vppc through the load characteristics. Figure 3c, d show the current–voltage (Ippc–Vppc) and power–voltage (Pppc–Vppc) curves of the PPC employed in this study with Plight_PPC from 1.5 W to 6 W. Figure 3e shows the curves between the Iph and the Plight_PPC, where Iph ∝ Plight_PPC. Here, Pppc = Vppc·Ippc. In Fig. 3c, d, the maximum power points (MPP) are the maximum electrical power output corresponding to various Plight_PPC, which are located at the “knee” regions of the Ippc – Vppc curve. To the left of the MPP, the Ippc is approximately equal to the Iph, i.e., Ippc ≈ Iph. To the right of the MPP, Ippc drops sharply as the Vppc increases.

The brushed DC motor model1 is shown in Fig. 3a, which is composed of armature winding inductance La, armature winding resistance Ra, and the back electromotive force (EMF) e (see section “Method” for details). The DC motor receives armature current Ia, and generates electromagnetic torque Te. The motor speed ωrm is determined when the Te balances with the load torque TL. An increase in the Ia results in greater Te, which leads to an increase in ωrm under the same TL. Figure 3c, d show the Ia–Vppc curves and the Pa–Vppc curves of the DC motor used in this work, respectively, under different TL from 20–40 mNm, where the input power Pa = Vppc·Ia.

The HPLD-PPC-Motor model of the proposed photon-driven DC motor system can be obtained by combing models of HPLD, fiber, PPC and DC motor. The IHPLD determines the Plight_HPLD, Plight_PPC, and Iph (Fig. 3f shows the Iph–IHPLD curves with fiber distances from 0.01 km to 10 km), which determines the Ippc. Ic is capacitor current and Ippc = Ia + Ic. Given the TL, the Ia determines the Te, which further determines the ωrm. Therefore, the motor speed ωrm as a function of IHPLD and TL can be written as

with

where Kt is torque constant, B is viscous damping coefficient, RHPLD is differential slope efficiency, ηtrans is power efficiency, RPPC is differential responsivity, Ith is threshold current, Io is diode reverse saturation current, n is diode ideality constant, VT is junction thermal voltage, Rsh is shunt resistance of the PPC, and Rs is series resistance of the PPC, J is inertia coefficient (see Method for the function derivation).

In the HPLD-PPC-Motor model as shown in Fig. 4a, given the load torque TL, the ωrm can be controlled by the Plight_PPC, which is regulated by the IHPLD. Figure 4a shows the ωrm as a function of IHPLD and TL based on the PPC and DC motor parameters used in this work, where a distinct red line highlights a startup condition of the motor. Figure 4b shows the Vppc as a function of IHPLD and TL. Figure 4c shows the Ippc as a function of IHPLD and TL. The same trend between ωrm and Vppc can be observed within Fig. 4a, b. Here, Vppc cannot surpass the open-circuit voltage of the PPC and the Ippc cannot exceed Iph, as shown in Fig. 4b, c, thereby limiting the increase of Vppc and ωrm. Supplementary Fig. 4 presents a comparison between the theoretical model and experimental data, including ωrm, Vppc, and Ippc. It is worth mentioning that the photon-driven DC motor system has an anti-disturbance capability to the fluctuations of load torque TL, which is not available in switching electricity converter-driven DC motor system (see Supplementary Note 1 for the principle of anti-disturbance capability).

a The speed-load torque-current of the HPLD(ωrm–TL–IHPLD) relationship of the photonic converter for DC motor. The depicted red line signifies the startup conditions, where the electromagnetic torque surpasses the TL, thereby the motor starts rotating. b The voltage of the PPC-load torque-current of the HPLD (Vppc–TL–IHPLD) relationship of the photonic converter for DC motor. c The current of the PPC-load torque-current of the HPLD (Ippc–TL–IHPLD) relationship of the photonic converter for DC motor. The used parameters are listed in Supplementary Table 1 and Supplementary Table 2.

The operation principle of the proposed photon-driven DC motor is proposed based on aforementioned HPLD-PPC-Motor model, where the photon-driven DC motor works at the corresponding operational matching point (OMP) in the steady state under different Plight_PPC (i.e., different IHPLD) and different TL, as shown in Fig. 3c, d. The OMPs are the intersections (red triangles) of the PPC’s Ippc–Vppc curves and the DC motor’s Ia–Vppc curves, where there is Ippc = Ia in the OMP in the steady state. For an example, suppose that the photon-driven DC motor works at OMP A (Plight_PPC = 3 W, i.e., IHPLD ≈ 1.48 A under 10 m fiber, and TL = 20 mNm), an increase of the Plight_PPC to 4.5 W, i.e., IHPLD ≈ 2.01 A under 10 m fiber, would lead to change in the PPC’s voltage and current curves (approximate curve shifts upward), which leads to a rise in current (Ippc and Ia), voltage Vppc, and speed ωrm, and finally works at OMP B steadily. Figure 3c shows that as the TL increases, to remain same ωrm, the Plight_PPC needs to be increased. If the TL remains unchanged, to increase the ωrm, the Plight_PPC needs to be increased.

An innovative power modulation (PM)-based speed control for the proposed photon-driven DC motor system is proposed based on aforementioned HPLD-PPC-Motor model and proposed operation principle, as shown in Fig. 5a. The PM-based speed control is composed of the controller, the photonic converter, optical fiber communication, and a suite of sensors. In the PM-based speed control, the control structure includes the system model (Fig. 5b) and the control scheme (Fig. 5c). The proportional-integral (PI) controller is used in this paper, which is renowned for efficacy in error correction and system stability enhancement. The operational flow begins with acquiring real-time feedback signals, including the ωrm and Vppc obtained from these sensors. These signals are then sent to the controller via optical fiber communication, marking the initiation of the speed control process. The control scheme is achieved by computing the speed error, which is the difference between the speed reference ωref and the ωrm. Based on the speed error, the PI controller control the reference of IHPLD, which is subsequently sent to the HPLD driver, and then control the HPLD’s output optical power Plight_HPLD and the ωrm. The control design for the proposed system is shown in the Supplementary Note 2. Since specific scenarios require the motor to have forward and reverse rotation functions, a topology that can realize forward and reverse rotation functions based on the photonic converter is proposed to meet this requirement, see Supplementary Note 3 for details.

a The control structure of the PM-based speed control in the photonic converter and experimental setup. b The system model of the photonic converter. c Control scheme of the proposed system. The speed reference is the input variable and the injection current reference of the HPLD is the output variable.

A prototype was constructed to verify the PM-based speed control of the photon-driven DC motor system, and its performance was tested using commercially available off-the-shelf components including an HPLD driver, HPLD, PPC, and a brushed DC motor. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5a, and its photos are shown in Fig. 6a (see section “Methods” for the construction of photonic converter prototype, Supplementary Fig. 5 for experimental results in the oscilloscope display diagram, and Supplementary Fig. 6 for the relationship between the brake injection current Itorque and output load torque TL). To prove that the proposed system can achieve speed control, three test situations are designed to verify the efficiency and feasibility of the motor system. The first test situation is that the DC motor brakes and starts under constant load torque. The second test situation is that the DC motor follows a sinusoidally varying speed reference command with constant load torque. The third test situation is that the DC motor tracks the constant speed reference command with load disturbance.

a Photograph of the experimental setup. b,c The system’s performance during both halt and initiation phases with rejection of ripple. Initially, the brushed DC motor maintains a constant speed of 347 rpm under a load torque of 40 mNm. At about 6 s, the speed command is adjusted to 0 rpm, and then back to 347 rpm at about 14 s; global picture (b) and local picture (c).

Figure 6b, c shows the experimental result of the first test situation, where the dynamic response of a DC motor under variable control commands is observed. Initially, the motor maintains a steady operation at 347 rpm under a load torque of 40 mNm. During this time, the PPC current ranges from 370 mA to 800 mA, and the voltage ranges from 5 V to 6.1 V, and the HPLD current ranges from 2.37 A to 2.6 A. At around 6 seconds, a command is issued to reset the speed reference to 0 rpm. This causes a rapid drop in both current and voltage, with the current falling to about 460 mA and the voltage dropping to around 0.65 V within 2 seconds, leading to the motor coming to a stop. At around 14 s, a command is given to restore the speed reference to 347 rpm, prompting the motor to restart. The current quickly rises to around 630 mA, fluctuates between 570 mA and 680 mA, and then stabilizes in the range of 465–760 mA. Similarly, the voltage eventually stabilizes around 6 V. The motor takes about 2 seconds to reach the desired speed after starting up. See Supplementary Movie 1 for the details. It is worth mentioning that both current and voltage exhibit minimal ripple when the motor stops, demonstrating the rejection of output ripple in the photonic converter. The current and voltage ripples observed when the motor rotates, are caused by the commutation of the DC motor’s commutator4.

Figure 7a, b presents the experimental results for the second test situation, focusing on the response to a sinusoidally varying speed reference command. In this experiment, the speed reference command exhibits a sinusoidal waveform with a frequency of 0.05 Hz and an amplitude of 30 rpm, which is superimposed on the constant speed of 347 rpm, under a load torque of 40 mNm. A more detailed view of the sinusoidal variation is provided in Fig. 7a, b, showing one cycle of the waveform. Within one cycle, the range of PPCs current changes from a range of 0.395–0.760 A to a range of 0.440–0.760 A. The voltage demonstrates a variation range from a range of 4.6–5.6 V to a range of 5.4–6.4 V. The experimental results indicate that the speed control system effectively tracks the sinusoidally varying speed reference command. See Supplementary Movie 2 for the details.

The system’s capability to track a sinusoidal speed setpoint with a 0.05 Hz frequency under a constant load torque of 40 mNm; global picture (a) and local picture (b). The system’s response to variations in load torque; starting from a base speed of 347 rpm with a 40 mNm load, the torque is reduced to 0 mNm at about 15 s, and subsequently restored to 40 mNm at about 35 s; global picture (c) and local picture (d).

Figure 7c, d presents the experimental results for the third test condition, which explores the response of the proposed system under varying load torque conditions. Initially set at 347 rpm with a 40 mNm load, the motor experiences a sudden shift to no-load conditions at 15 s. The abrupt change causes an excess of electromagnetic torque, which leads to an unintended speed increase. To counteract the situation, the system dynamically adjusts the PPC current, reducing electromagnetic torque and moderating the current from a range of 0.38–0.8 A down to a range of 0.03–0.32 A. This action mitigates the speed increase, stabilizing it back to 347 rpm at about 22 s. The reapplication of the 40 mNm load torque at about 35 s further tests the system’s resilience. This increase in load torque causes an immediate rise in current and a drop in voltage, reflecting the motor’s struggle against the increase in load torque. Then, the speed control promptly elevates the PPC current, boosting electromagnetic torque to counter the impact of increasing load torque. The voltage, after initially falling, starts to climb, showing a recovery in motor speed. By about 40 s, motor operation normalizes, returning the initial parameters with a voltage range of 4.8–6 V and maintaining the set speed of 347 rpm. This experiment shows that the speed control is effective in keeping the motor speed steady, even when the load torque changes. It demonstrates the system’s robustness in real-time adjustments. See Supplementary Movie 3 for the details.

Figure 8a illustrates an experiment conducted to confirm the presence of a speed limit as shown in the model. The motor, operating under open-loop control with a 20 mNm load torque, shows variations in speed, voltage, and current with increasing HPLD injection current from 0 A to 2 A, starting at 6.3 s and continuing until 25.6 s. Initially, the low PPC voltage indicated the motor is stationary. Once rotation starts, the PPC voltage surges. At about 22.4 s, the motor’s speed stabilizes at approximately 500 rpm, and the PPC voltage stabilizes between the range from 6.77 V to 7.09 V, slightly below the PPC’s open-circuit voltage of 7.2 V, despite further increases in HPLD current. This experimental result confirms the speed limit of the above discussion, demonstrating the motor’s speed stabilization despite increasing HPLD current.

a Under a 20 mNm load torque, motor speed, voltage, and current responses to increasing HPLD injection current from 0 A to 2 A starting at 6.3 s and continuing until 25.6 s, over 19.3 s. Notably, at 22.4 s, the motor reached its speed limit at ~500 rpm, while PPC voltage peaked between 6.77 V and 7.09 V, demonstrating a speed limit. b Output ripple of the switching electricity converter with a load resistance of 20 Ω. c Output ripple of the photonic converter with the load resistance of 20 Ω.

To compare the output ripple between the photonic converter and the switching electricity converter, experimental comparisons were conducted. Both converters carry a load resistance of 20 Ω and have an output voltage of 5 V and an output current of 0.25 A. Figure 8b, c show the output voltage and output current of the switching electricity converter and the output voltage and output current of the photonic converter, respectively. The output ripple in the switching electricity converter can be observed due to its on-off switching actions. In the photonic converter, the output ripple is almost non-existent, and the voltage and current are almost a straight line.

The intrinsic EMI of the proposed system and conventional system is measured by assessing the intensity of electromagnetic field emission from both. A YOKOGAWA DLM5038 oscilloscope (2.5 GS/s) is utilized for monitoring voltage and current variations, and an H field probe is used to monitor the intensity of electromagnetic field emission.

Figure 9 shows the EMI measurement experimental results of photon-driven DC motor system with load torque (40 mNm) and sinusoidal speed reference (superimpose a sine speed command with an amplitude of 30 rpm on a speed of 347 rpm). Figure 9a shows the close-up photo of setup. The H field probe is positioned approximately 2 cm directly above the photonic converter, as shown in Fig. 9a. Figure 9b, c show the oscilloscope wave of experiment results, including the HPLD voltage, HPLD current, PPCs voltage, PPCs current, speed, reference speed, torque-current, and the output voltage of the H field probe. Figure 9d shows the voltage ripple measured from the H field probe. Based on Fig. 9d, Fig. 9e shows the intensity of the intrinsic EMI. In Fig. 9e, the red line represents the intensity of electromagnetic field emissions when the proposed system is powered off, and the blue line represents the intensity of electromagnetic field emissions when the proposed system is powered on. From Fig. 9e, it can be observed that the blue line is very close to the red line with little difference, which indicates that the proposed system emits little electromagnetic field emissions.

a Close-up photo of the photonic converter and motor under test. Oscilloscope waveform of experiment results; global picture (b) and local picture (c). d Output voltage waveforms from the H field probe. e Intensity of the intrinsic EMI, measured when proposed system is powered on (in blue) and off (in red).

Figure 10 shows the EMI measurement experimental results of conventional switching electricity converter-driven DC motor system with load torque (40 mNm) and sinusoidal speed reference (superimpose a sine speed command with an amplitude of 30 rpm on a speed of 347 rpm). Figure 10a shows the close-up photo of setup. The H field probe is positioned ~2 cm directly above the switching power converter, as shown in Fig. 10a. Figure 10b, c show the oscilloscope wave of experiment results, including motor voltage, motor current, speed, reference speed, torque current, and the output voltage of the H field probe. Based on Fig. 10d, e shows the intensity of the intrinsic EMI. In Fig. 10e, the red line represents the intensity of electromagnetic field emissions when the conventional system is powered off, and the blue line represents the intensity of electromagnetic field emissions when the conventional system is powered on. It can be seen that the blue line is obviously greater than the red line, which indicates that conventional systems emit much electromagnetic field emissions. From Fig. 9e, 10e, it can be observed that the proposed system reduces EMI compared to the conventional system. Experimental verification of intrinsic EMI of photonic converter is shown in the Supplementary Note 4. See Supplementary Movie 4 for the details.

a Close-up photo of the switching power converter and motor under test. Oscilloscope waveform of experiment results; global picture (b) and local picture (c). d Output voltage waveforms from the H field probe. e Intensity of the intrinsic EMI, measured when conventional system is powered on (in blue) and off (in red).

In this study, a photon-driven DC motor system is proposed, including its HPLD-PPC-Motor model, operation principle, and PM-based speed control. In this system, a HPLD converts electrical energy into optical energy, which is transmitted via optical fibers to photovoltaic power converters, transforming it back into electrical energy to drive motor. Unlike conventional switching converter-driven DC motor systems, which rely on the rapid on-off switching actions in switching electricity converters, the proposed system utilizes a photonic converter to drive the DC motor without switching actions. Hence, the proposed system not only eliminates the intrinsic EMI and output ripple generated by the rapid on-off switching actions in switching electricity converters, but also utilizes the non-conductive nature of optical fibers for immunity to environmental EMI.

To validate the proposed system, an experimental prototype was constructed, and experimental verifications of PM-based speed control were conducted in three situations. These experiments demonstrated the system’s capability to effectively track reference speeds and preserve motor speed consistency amidst varying load torques. The speed limit of the motor, as shown in the theoretical model analysis, was also verified. Experiments compare the electromagnetic field emission and output ripple between the commercial switching electricity converter and the photonic converter.

The proposed photon-driven DC motor system offers a promising alternative solution for motor control, especially in industries requiring electromagnetic compatibility. The proposed system is possible to apply in the following application scenarios: (1) mobile tethered unmanned aerial vehicle (tUAV) for monitoring high voltage transmission lines (see Method for the advantages of the tUAV); (2) auxiliary motor drive system of electromagnetic catapult system, which can be used in space launch, missile defense, high-pressure research, aircraft catapult. Future research should concentrate on enhancing the energy conversion efficiency and expanding the applicability of the photonic converter in diverse and challenging environments. Besides, the proposed photon-driven DC motor system requires the PPC, and the PPC is not cheap because it is not currently used on a large scale in industry.

The HPLD driver controls the injection current of the HPLD IHPLD depending on the control signal generated by the controller, as shown in Fig. 3a. The power of the high-power light Plight_HPLD of the HPLD increases linearly with the IHPLD35,36, according to

where RHPLD is the differential slope efficiency, which can be considered as a constant parameter; Ith is the threshold current of the HPLD. In this study, a commercial HPLD (BOX Company Ltd. BLD-F808-15-22ST) is used to provide up to 15 W of optical power output, which is launched into the 0.5 m MMFs (105/125 μm, NA 0.22) at nominally 808 nm wavelength. Considering the influence of temperature, temperature control is critical in maintaining the stability of HPLD output characteristics. Power–current curve and voltage–current curve of the HPLD under a temperature range from 20 °C to 40 °C are shown in Supplementary Fig. 7. For this purpose, passive air-cooled heat sinks are utilized to stabilize the HPLD temperature at the ambient room temperature.

The high-power light generated from the HPLD is transmitted by the optical fiber and then illuminated to the PPC. There is power loss in the propagation of light in optical fibers. Bouguer-Beer–Lambert law37 is used to calculate the power loss and power efficiency of optical energy transmission in fiber, which shows that the power of light attenuates exponentially with distance due to the material’s properties, like absorption and scattering in the fiber. This attenuation, measured as the attenuation coefficient α in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), depends on the distance of light propagation and its wavelength.

According to Bouguer-Beer–Lambert law37, for a transmission distance of z km, the attenuation of the high-power light is αz dB. Thus, the power efficiency of the high-power light ηtrans can be expressed as38

where Plight_PPC is the input optical power of PPC, and Plight_HPLD is the output optical power of HPLD. The power loss Ploss can be expressed as Ploss = Plight_HPLD(1 − ηtrans).

The widely used PPC model is the single diode model due to its tradeoff between accuracy and simplicity. In the single diode model44,45, main parameters include current flowing Ippc, voltage across the PPC Vppc, photogenerated current Iph, diode reverse saturation current Io, series resistance Rs, and shunt resistance Rsh, as shown in Fig. 3a. The Ippc is represented by

with

where VT is the junction thermal voltage and can be expressed as VT = kT/q, and the k is the Boltzmann’s constant equal to 1.3806 × 10−23 J/K; T is the absolute temperature; q = 1.6022 × 10−19 C is the electron charge; n is the diode ideality constant; RPPC is differential responsivity, which can generally be considered as a constant. Plight_PPC is the input optical power irradiated on the PPC photosensitive surface. In Eq. (5), Rsh, n, Io, and Rs are four unknown parameters. These parameters depend on the material and manufacturing process of the PPC, which can be calculated by measuring other parameters of the PPC under rated optical power.

To ascertain the four unknown parameters, a comprehensive analysis of the PPC current–voltage (I–V) characteristics is conducted. These parameters are deduced from the short-circuit current Isc, open-circuit voltage Voc, output current at the maximum power point Im, and the corresponding output voltage Vm. Besides, the slopes at the open-circuit point Rso and the short-circuit point Rsho are derived from the I–V curve. Under short-circuit conditions, the output terminals of the PPC are connected in a closed loop, resulting in the highest possible current flow, which corresponds to the Isc. Conversely, when the output terminals are open, the voltage across the PPC reaches its peak, equaling the Voc. During operation at the maximum power point, the output current matches the Im, and the voltage across the PPC is identified as the Vm. To precisely determine the values of Rsho and Rso, a linear fit is applied to the current and voltage data in the vicinity of the short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage points, respectively. The Rsh is equal to the Rsho, Thus Rsho and Rso can be expressed by

with

The diode ideality constant of the diode can be calculated by

with

The other parameters Io, Rs are obtained using the following equations as

The vertical multi-junction GaAs-based PPC (Broadcom AFBR-POC306A1) is used in this work, as shown in Fig. 3e. Using the Eqs. (7)–(14), the parameters of AFBR-POC306A1 are shown in Supplementary Table 2 and Supplementary Table 3. Similar to the HPLD, the temperature affects the characteristics of the PPC. Thus, the passive air-cooled heat sinks are also utilized to stabilize the PPC temperature at the ambient room temperature. Supplementary Fig. 8 shows the short-circuit current and maximum power point current of the PPC as a function of case temperature at 808 nm.

The equivalent circuit model of the brushed DC motor is shown in Fig. 3a. Under the assumption that the armature reaction is perfectly canceled out by the commutating poles and the compensation winding, the brushed DC motor can be modeled using the following equations by ref.1

with

where Vppc is the terminal voltage of the brushed DC motor, Ra is the equivalent armature winding resistance, Ia is the armature current, La is the equivalent armature winding inductance in H, e is the back EMF, Ke presents the back EMF constant, ωrm is the speed rotor.

The equation of the motion of the rotor can be expressed by

with

where Te is the electromagnetic torque of the DC motor, J is the total inertia of the rotating part, B is the viscous damping coefficient, TL is the load torque, Kt is the torque constant. In the steady state, the rotating speed of the DC motor is constant as dωrm/dt = 0, and the armature current is also constant as dIa/dt = 0. Thus, the torque of the DC motor is equal to the load torque and friction torque (Te = Bωrm + TL). The I–V curve, e–ωrm curve, and Te–Ia curve of the brushed DC motor used in this study are shown in Supplementary Figs. 9a, 9b, and 9c, respectively. The parameters of this brushed DC motor are listed in Supplementary Table 4.

HPLD-PPC-Motor model is composed of HPLD model, fiber model, PPC model, and motor model (See Supplementary Fig. 10 for detailed derivation process). By integrating Eqs. (3), (4), and (6), the Iph as a function of IHPLD is expressed as

where RHPLD, ηtrans, RPPC, and Ith can be considered as constant, thus Iph ∝ IHPLD in the linear interval of the HPLD. Ippc = Ia + Ic, due to the parallel connection between PPC and DC motor in HPLD-PPC-Motor model as shown in Fig. 2a. Based on Eq. (15), the Vppc can be expressed as

By integrating Eqs. (5) and (19), the Ippc can be expressed as

Based on Eq. (17), the ωrm can be expressed as

By integrating Eqs. (20)–(22), the ωrm as a function of IHPLD and TL can be written as

with

From Eqs. (23) and (24), it can be observed that TL is an environmental variable which affect the ωrm, while the ωrm can be controlled by the IHPLD. Factors of the transient state are considered, such as speed variance and inductance voltage, alongside the charging and discharging dynamics of capacitors. In a steady state, the ωrm is constant as dωrm/dt = 0, the Ia is also constant as d(Ippc − Ic)/dt = 0, and capacitor voltage is constant as Ic = 0. Thus, the ωrm at the steady state is the function of IHPLD and TL as

with

where a desired ωrm is regulated by IHPLD to accommodate the environmental TL variations.

In the experimental prototype for the photonic converter, illustrated in Fig. 6a, a HPLD driven by a Yexian LDM1101 is deployed, powered by a DC source (Itech IT6006D-500-40). This setup is controlled through a digital signal processor (DSP) incorporating an integrated speed control, with RS485 communication enabling real-time monitoring of operational parameters on a computer. Supplementary Table 5 shows controller parameters for experimental verification of PM-based speed control. The high-power light with a wavelength of 808 nm generated by the HPLD (BOX BLD-F808-15-22ST) is coupled into a multimode fiber (MMF105/125 NA0.22), where the rated output optical power is 15 W. The PPC (Broadcom AFBR-POC306A1) has a maximum input optical power of 6 W and a rated output electrical power of 3 W. The chosen HPLD can power two chosen PPCs simultaneously since its rated output power is over double the rated input power of a single PPC. To achieve that one HPLD powers two PPCs, the fiber coupler is used, which can split the input power from the HPLD and allocate the output power to two PPCs according to a certain proportion. In this study, the 1 × 2 fiber coupler (50:50) is used (MC Fiber Optics MMFBTC026), which can allocate input power to two output fibers in a ratio of 50 to 50. (See Supplementary Note 5 for the principle of fiber coupler in photonic converter and the parameters of fiber coupler are listed in Supplementary Table 6).

This arrangement, with two PPCs connected in parallel to both the motor and several ceramic capacitors with a capacitance of 660uF, ensures enhanced voltage stability. In the printed circuit board of the PPC, the current transducer (LEM CASR 6-NP) is used to measure the current. The brushed DC motor chosen for this work is a stator bipolar with a three-slot rotor. This motor is equipped with a reduction gearbox with a reduction ratio of 1:13 to achieve greater torque and facilitate experimental testing. The desired load torque is generated by the brake (HAIBOHUA HB-02M-0.2Nm), which is controlled by the intelligent brake current controller (HAIBOHUA CSM-500), by adjusting the injection current of the brake to control load torque. The speed sensor, an incremental encoder in the torque meter is utilized within the experimental setup for measuring the real-time speed of the brushed DC motor. Through fiber communication transmitter and receiver, the real-time feedback signals obtained from sensors are converted into optical signals for communication achieving immunity EMI. The analog-to-digital converter channels of the DSP controller adopt the real-time signal from the fiber communication receiver for the speed control. The HPLD current, HPLD voltage, PPCs current, the terminal voltage of the motor, speed of the motor, reference speed and output current from the intelligent brake current controller, are visualized by an oscilloscope (YOKOGAWA DLM5038).

Tethered UAVs (tUAVs) offer several advantages over untethered UAVs (uUAVs) due to their continuous power supply and secure data transmission capabilities, as follows.

Continuous Power Supply and Extended Flight Times: tUAVs are connected to a ground-based power source (ground station) through a cable, which provides them with a continuous power supply. This eliminates the need for onboard batteries and allows them to remain airborne for extended periods. This is particularly beneficial for tasks that require long-term monitoring or continuous operation, where battery life would otherwise limit the duration of flight.

Stable Data Transmission: The tether cable used in tUAVs not only supplies power but can also be used for data transmission. This setup ensures a stable and reliable communication link between the UAV and the ground station, reducing the risks of data loss and delays that are common with wireless communications. The direct physical connection provides higher data transfer rates and greater security against interception or interference.

Increased Payload Capacity: Some tUAVs are designed to carry heavier payloads because they do not need to carry their power source (batteries). This capability allows them to equip more substantial or multiple pieces of equipment, making them ideal for specialized tasks that require significant on-board technology.

Reduced Risk: The tethered design minimizes the risk of UAVs getting lost or flying beyond the operator’s control range. This is especially useful in complex or confined environments, where maintaining control of the uUAV could be challenging.

Source data are provided with this paper.

The code to implement the DSP control for experimental verification of PM-based speed control is available at the supplementary document.

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This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52277173, F. D.).

School of Electrical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

Dingyi Lin, Fujin Deng, Wei Hua & Ming Cheng

Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Zhe Chen

Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China

Zhiming Wang

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D.L. and F.D. conceived the idea, conducted the theoretical analysis, conducted experiments, and wrote the paper. W.H., M.C., Z.C., and Z.W. provided suggestions and comments and helped to organize and revise the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the manuscript.

Correspondence to Fujin Deng.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Nature Communications thanks Alberto Martinez-Barboa and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.

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Lin, D., Deng, F., Hua, W. et al. High-performance photon-driven DC motor system. Nat Commun 15, 9506 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53924-9

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53924-9

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